23 articles were included in the present review. Findings demonstrate some increases in arousal and empathy in using VR pornography. However, further empirical evidence for these findings is still needed. In addition, teledildonic technology is lacking empirical research and the effects of the use of this technology in conjunction with VR requires research.
The Rise And Feel Of VR Pornography
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Collectively, the results underscore the notion that VR improves immersion and presence for subjects, and this can translate to increased sexual desire, empathy for performers in pornography, and sexual anxiety in watching pornography. This is a field in infancy, and the initial results of empirical work suggest that VR can intensify some key aspects of the experience of pornography. Theoretical reflections on VR pornography indicate many areas that require further empirical research.
After screening out studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, a total of 23 empirical, quantitative studies and non-empirical studies published between January 1, 2017, and July 1, 2022, were identified that were relevant to the present review. Other research in this review is used to contextualise the findings and insights into VR pornography in the wider research context around pornography and cybersex (Table 1).
Empirical studies used a combination of subjective self-reporting and physiological data to assess arousal, intimacy, empathy, and anxiety when assessing the differences between VR pornography and traditional 2D pornography. Non-empirical research based on critical theory used a range of critical perspectives on the development, use, and effects of VR pornography.
Research on arousal has assessed whether VR pornography invokes more physiological arousal than traditional 2D pornography [6,7,8,9,10,11]. This research has two important implications. Firstly, from a theoretical perspective, an increase in immersion and presence aligned to an increase in arousal speaks to the efficacy of pornography in VR. Secondly, arousal in VR is important in terms of therapeutic interventions for sexual disorders and anxieties. Individuals with sexual aversion anxiety disorders, for instance, could be assisted by VR therapy if VR stimulates arousal and can be used in a therapeutic capacity to safely reduce anxiety through immersion therapy. Conversely, if VR pornography is more arousing than 2D pornography, this could have significant implications for addiction to pornography and other problematic behaviour associated with pornography consumption.
VR pornography appears, on the basis of limited research, to increase sexual arousal with regard to the reaction of people to pornography. Studies that have compared 2D pornography to VR pornography have identified increased subjective and objective levels of arousal in participants for VR pornography. Moreover, this increased arousal is also seen in sexually adverse participants, with VR pornography increasing levels of reported anxiety and physiological arousal compared to 2D pornography. On the basis of one study, empathy with pornography performers on the basis of increased feelings of intimacy is higher with VR pornography. With regard to teledildonic technology, there is only theoretical discussion of the possible effects of this technology on sexual desire, behaviour, and arousal.
The implications of a limited set of empirical studies are difficult to summarise without caution. However, this early research does indicate that VR pornography has both the potential and the current effect of being a more stimulating form of pornography consumption, both physiologically and psychologically, and may play a role in reshaping sexuality, the expression of sexual behaviour and desire [44]. There are several potential implications of this set of findings. The use of VR pornography could have effects on addiction to pornography and associated behaviours thanks to increased stimulation. VR pornography could also play an important role in interventions around pornography addiction thanks to the potential humanising effect of the increased presence and immersion felt by users. VR pornography may have a role to play in immersion therapy-based interventions around sexual anxiety and other related social anxiety disorders. This research on the efficacy of VR pornography compared to 2D pornography does not consider the effects on performers (particularly in synchronous pornography where teledildonic technology can be used to interact with performers), production, the content of VR pornography, or use patterns of VR pornography.
All these areas are relevant to future research agendas on VR pornography as they indicate considerable gaps in the current literature. While research on VR pornography is in an early stage, so is the use of VR for pornography. Considerable issues have been identified with regard to the heteronormative and male-focused nature of both VR pornography and teledildonics, and research does indicate that younger, higher income men report far more use of teledildonics and other emerging forms of sexual technology [45]. Further research is needed to understand what the specific demographics of use are for teledildonics synced with VR, particularly if the potential for teledildonics to overcome spatial separation between people is to be harnessed [46]. If these are continuing issues, then the use of VR pornography in research and treatment may be limited, as may the general use of VR pornography. Additionally, there are major lacunas in the research regarding the use of VR pornography by minors and adolescents. All these areas require further empirical research if clinicians and researchers are to be prepared for the challenges and benefits associated with the adoption of such sexual technologies [47].
Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the user an immersive feel of a virtual world. Applications of virtual reality include entertainment (particularly video games), education (such as medical or military training) and business (such as virtual meetings). Other distinct types of VR-style technology include augmented reality and mixed reality, sometimes referred to as extended reality or XR, although definitions are currently changing due to the nascence of the industry.[2]
Desktop-based virtual reality involves displaying a 3D virtual world on a regular desktop display without use of any specialized VR positional tracking equipment. Many modern first-person video games can be used as an example, using various triggers, responsive characters, and other such interactive devices to make the user feel as though they are in a virtual world. A common criticism of this form of immersion is that there is no sense of peripheral vision, limiting the user's ability to know what is happening around them.
To create a feeling of immersion, special output devices are needed to display virtual worlds. Well-known formats include head-mounted displays or the CAVE. In order to convey a spatial impression, two images are generated and displayed from different perspectives (stereo projection). There are different technologies available to bring the respective image to the right eye. A distinction is made between active (e.g. shutter glasses) and passive technologies (e.g. polarizing filters or Infitec).[70]
In order to improve the feeling of immersion, wearable multi-string cables offer haptics to complex geometries in virtual reality. These strings offer fine control of each finger joint to simulate the haptics involved in touching these virtual geometries.[71]
Most small-size displays have a refresh rate of 60 Hz, which adds about 15ms of additional latency. The number is reduced to less than 7ms if the refresh rate is increased to 120 Hz or even 240 Hz and more.[74] Participants generally feel that the experience is more immersive with higher refresh rates as a result. However, higher refresh rates require a more powerful graphics processing unit.
Virtual reality is most commonly used in entertainment applications such as video games, 3D cinema, amusement park rides including dark rides and social virtual worlds. Consumer virtual reality headsets were first released by video game companies in the early-mid 1990s. Beginning in the 2010s, next-generation commercial tethered headsets were released by Oculus (Rift), HTC (Vive) and Sony (PlayStation VR), setting off a new wave of application development.[78] 3D cinema has been used for sporting events, pornography, fine art, music videos and short films. Since 2015, roller coasters and theme parks have incorporated virtual reality to match visual effects with haptic feedback.[51] VR not only fits the trend of the digital industry but also enhances the film's visual effect. The film gives the audience more ways to interact through VR technology.[79]
In the fast-paced and globalised business world meetings in VR are used to create an environment in which interactions with other people (e.g. colleagues, customers, partners) can feel more natural than a phone call or video chat. In the customisable meeting rooms all parties can join using the VR headset and interact as if they are in the same physical room. Presentations, videos or 3D models (of e.g. products or prototypes) can be uploaded and interacted with.[97] Compared to traditional text-based CMC, Avatar-based interactions in 3D virtual environment lead to higher levels of consensus, satisfaction, and cohesion among group members.[98]
Studies on VR consumer behavior or its effect on children and a code of ethical conduct involving underage users are especially needed, given the availability of VR porn and violent content. Related research on violence in video games suggests that exposure to media violence may affect attitudes, behavior, and even self-concept. Self-concept is a key indicator of core attitudes and coping abilities, particularly in adolescents.[164] Early studies conducted on observing versus participating in violent VR games suggest that physiological arousal and aggressive thoughts, but not hostile feelings, are higher for participants than for observers of the virtual reality game.[165] 2ff7e9595c
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